Rein Vöörmann
INTRODUCTION
The central analytical problem in our project is to understand how various forms of social identity structure the recognition of social problems that accompany the post-Soviet transition. One aspect of this is to analyze how gender identity reflects in the social problems, are people identifying themselves as men or women concerned about different matters, in which categories they articulate problems.
Preparing our project and discussing the topic of the project, we expected that the number of social problems identified by people of the former USSR will be very big. However, we were specially interested in three particular issues - 1) economic problems; 2) national (ethnic) questions; 3) gender problems. It was agreed that if during the discussion, speaking about difficulties or improvements in the society, these social issues are not articulated by participants, moderator will ask more direct question, like this: 'Have the issues we discussed today affected people of various nationalities differently?'
Concerning these three issues it should be mention that at least in Estonia economic problems were the central issue of discussions and there was no need to ask additional questions. National (ethnic) question (if arose) was very strongly related to language - non-Estonians should know and speak Estonian (Estonian focus groups) or, vice versa, why I (and older people) should learn Estonian (Russian focus groups).
The only issue which was not touched upon by the focus group participants themselves was GENDER and problems related to gender.
In this paper is taken attempt to analyze do ordinary people in Estonia see problems concerning gender, are Estonian men's and women's problems different or the same, does there exists some inequality between men and women in Estonia and if yes, what it should be.
To the beginning.
ARE GENDER RELATIONS A PROBLEM? The study of gender problems is becoming more and more important in the social sciences. Many
Western scholars have stressed that gender divisions are a basic social relation and, for that
reason, that gender inequality is as important as class or economic change in understanding social
reality. This is extremely important as in this way gender studies have evolved away from an earlier
focus on the position of women as one relatively disadvantaged group. Current research emphasizes how
gender relations between men and women structure society, including inequality between the sexes. In the former Soviet Union as well as in Estonia gender problems were not widely discussed as the official principle declared by authorities was equality of men and women. Therefore, there are many publications in the former soviet scientific literature, describing the equality of women and showing tremendous development achieved by the soviet women in terms of schooling, job participation etc. At the same time this equality was only one side of the gender question, many other problems, and more important, were left out of discussion and analysis. At present time the whole social situation in Estonia is changed. Break up of the former USSR and transition to the market based economy has had implications on all spheres of daily life. However, concerning gender, the situation is changed just a little. There are still a lot of problems as, for example, the conference, held in Tallinn on 10-12 of April 1997, "Women and Men in Dialogue" showed. Two facts to demonstrate these problems. Estonian women, for instance, who on average are more educated than Estonian men, live in an economically and politically more constrained situation than Estonian men. Women have more limited access to the social networks through which men have converted their control over the means of production into control over the privatization of these means. Or another example which is widespread and typical also for the most developed countries. The earnings of Estonian men in all occupational as well as educational groups is higher than those of women. According to the data of Estonian Statistical Office in 1992 the share of the females' average gross wages in the males' average gross wages per hour was 80 per cent. By 1993 it had decreased to 73 and by 1994 to 71 per cent although the actually worked hours were practically equal. In 1995 it increased a little bit and was 73 per cent. These are only a couple of examples about the gender problems and one can expect that inequality between men and women is widely discussed on every level of society. However, as it was said already, gender inequality as a problem did not arise in any focus group discussion in Estonia. Moderator had to follow the Focus Group Discussion Guide in which for this situation was the following instruction: 'You all have identified many important social issues here. We would like to ask you more directly about a couple issues that you have mentioned and some that you did not mentioned very directly, but might be on your cards as less important issues.' Concerning gender the question was as following: 'Have the issues we discussed today affected men and women differently? Are there any particularly important problems, whether or not we mentioned them today, that affect men much more than women, or women more than men?' It seems that the first reaction of the focus group participants to this question was surprise. They did not expect this kind of question and were not ready to give an answer. Because of that very quick and the most common answer was ...'no, there is no difference between men and women, discussed problems concern men and women in the same way', or 'I can not say that women are touched on particularly by some question'. But later, when people thought a little bit, they begun step by step to find some differences in men's and women's problems and were able to say what is more important for men (on women's opinion) and what for women (on men's opinion). However, even this - certain specific problems for men and women - did not change the focus group participants mind, they did not agree that there is gender inequality in Estonia.
To the table of contents.
Thus, one can see that on women's opinion men are thinking about more general problems -politics, economy etc. and after that about personal, connected with family problems. This, of course, does not mean that men are now less responsible for the family. And women appreciate it very much.
When husband feels himself being more responsible than wife, he is working hard. Now we have more such families where the wife is staying at home, and the husband has taken the bigger responsibility and obligation and in this case he has the bigger risk.
Women think that men are in quite bad situation now. Many of them had to change jobs during the transition period and if you have to do it very often, it is not good.
How many people move there in the labor market. Terrible. If you change jobs every other month, you can get fully into it. You just come, looking for a job to do something. And a new round begins.
Complicated situation on the labor market has several bad consequences. On one hand, some men (particularly new entrepreneurs) work very hard, almost without holidays. They are real 'workaholics', they do not go to the doctor. The result is that mortality rate among middle-aged men in Estonia has increased significantly. On the other hand, men who have lost the job and are not able to find a new one, are depressed. It also causes the health problems.
Men are less capable to survive...
The fact is that many women in my circle of acquaintances simply lost their husbands. They could not bear this stress and were simply gone from this life due to heart attack. It's not because they were gone through an enforced death. It is because the heart attacks followed one another by a number of my good acquaintances. It was horrifying simply when there came such a news and suddenly you learned about the death, the heart attack. It's only because we have reached an age... And again we are not 18, not 20, we are at the age which is considered to be matured, when a man was always responsible for the family. And all over sudden he was out of business. "Baltiec" (big factory in Narva) was down - these were the sufferings with this "Baltiec". For example they worked there at the design office or even at the production hall, and they were with no work. It was yet difficult to find a way then. A heart attack - and a man is no longer.
Focus group discussions showed that people in Estonia quite strongly support traditional gender role behavior. There is clear conception what is men's duties and what is women's ones. Usually people do not speak about this, it is simply accepted and followed. But now, there is some transformation of gender roles in the society and men quite often can not act as they are used to. Because of that women (specially Russian women) think that men's situation at present time is more complicated compared with that of women and men need even some protection.
Well, you know, for men it’s even harder today than for women. They have to bear such a heavy burden, that is, responsibility for their families. They have to be in line with some social. They have to earn money for their families, they have to give their children education, they have to work hard and so on and so forth. I just feel pity for them.
By traditional understanding husband is the main breadwinner in the family. But now this role of husband is sometimes limited due to several reasons (unemployment, low salaries). And it is very hard for men to be in this situation.
It seems to me that every normal man suffers a lot if he is not able to be a livelihood for his family. The fact is that for a man - it seems to me for a normal man - it is bad, probably he can not imagine to himself... But it is very disgraceful to him when a wife works while he has to be unemployed.
It may have several bad consequences. Health problems were mentioned already earlier, but it may cause misunderstandings also in the family. Discussants gave several examples when families fell apart because husband could not act as breadwinner in the family.
I wanted to tell that I have an example of some families which fell apart exactly due to this: when a man was without a job and degraded to such a level that a family simply fell apart. Well, perhaps both sides were guilty in such a situation.
Thus, one can conclude that according to women's opinion men would like to act as it has been traditionally common during the long time period - to take care of the family welfare. Women role, at the same time, would be to take care of home and children. Women thought that men would not, in principle, object women's staying at home, but they can not allow it because men can not earn enough money for their families. If to take a look at women's own opinion about their staying at home one can see a picture which is quite typical for women of the former USSR. Concretely - women who have worked since graduation from secondary or vocational schools, in other words have been on the labor market most of their life, would like with pleasure to stay at home. But they have one demand - husband would earn enough money for the family.
Most of my life I’ve been dreaming of staying at home and having a rest without any financial trouble. Though, I have been working since the age 18.
To justify this opinion some women tried to compare the women's situation in Estonia (in the former USSR) and western countries. In doing so they have imagination that women in west can easily stay at home (if they do not like work or have small children) but can also work (if they like). There is no economical demand from the family to work and if she is working it is her free decision.
If we compare the social status of a women before perestroika and now. Formerly practically all married women worked. Men got used to that. Now, things are starting to change. If we look at the Western model we can say that most women there stay quietly at home and take care of their children. If wife stays at home and takes care of the children, she may have some hobby. And when they start working? Sometimes they go to work when their children have grown up. Western women go to work to realize themselves as a personality.
This is may be extreme example what some women (first of all Russian women) in our country think about the women's situation in western societies. Most of women, of course, do not think in this way. But the fact is that women are dreaming about better life and they have serious problems on the labor market, they are worried about their children's future etc. In other words, they have some special problems, even if women do not say that these are special women problems.
For example, speaking about the situation on the labor market, Russian women said that unemployment is the most dangerous problem. Both Estonian and Russian women agreed that it is much more easier for men to get a job than for women. Besides, women are ready to do any job (cleaner, dishcleaner), men are not, they prefer to became even drunkards.
I know a lot of men who become a habitual drunkard!!! But women - they agree to go everywhere, to do any job!
Shortage of job is very serious problem, at first, for women with young children and, secondly, for middle-aged women. Employers do not like to hire women who have children, because children can get sick and women will be on sick leave. To take care of sick child is traditionally wife's role.
To be frank, formerly you could be on sick leave when your child was ill, but now you don’t dare, they’ll tell you they don’t need you.
Or another opinion:
I’ve said, if women have children, it’s hard to find a job. How many men would you find who’d be on sick leave to be at home with a sick child.
Thus, women know that there is a 'statistical (hidden) discrimination' of women on the labor market - women are expected to behave in certain way and because of that employers behave respectively too (they do not hire women with small children) - but this is taken as normal.
Concerning the problem of middle-aged women the opinions were quite different. Some women said that employers still prefer young and beautiful.
Maybe you know languages and computers too, but they (employers) say, your age is not suitable. You may be more clever than a young person, but the young one will be employed instead of you because she is young. It’s the most serious problem for the middle-aged.
But most women agreed that there are now concerning age some changes on the labor market. Employers have understood that on one hand young people are educated, free from old stereotypes etc., but on the other hand they do not have work experience which is important for successful business.
I think there has been a step in advance, because some time ago one could read in the newspaper that secretaries aged 18-25 were being sought, now it’s different, from 25 to 35. It means, it definitely has changed.
Although this is quite small change, it is some kind change anyway. One focus group participant gave an example when even a 50 year old woman got a secretarial job, something which in our days is a big exception.
Concerning income women had different opinions. It seems that they did not know statistical data and all their information was based on personal experience. Because of that some of them said with some doubt that men's work seems to be better paid or men seem to get more. Others confirmed that it depends on the job or it depends if you have fixed monthly salary or hourly wages. One woman (working in private firm as manager) said directly: 'In general women's wages seem to be higher'.
Thus, it seems that in our days when many changes have taken place people are not sure whose income - men's or women's - in average is higher. Besides, quite often it is said all depends on you, your knowledge, abilities, experience.
One big circle of women problems is connected with family, let it be changing role of husband and wife in our days, children's future, different generations etc. But first of all women feel some uncertainty, family is not by their opinion valued by the society.
Family has never been appreciated here. In those days it was like that already that first and foremost you had your work, and the children were in kindergarten and then at school. I mean, it has actually been like that all the time but now it has become especially striking.
Both Estonian and Russian women said that family relations have become especially urgent with changes in society. If father as well as mother are working and one of them is entrepreneur, child(ren) can not sometimes even see parents or one of them. But child needs both parents.
Family problems have obviously always been here. Formerly, it was more of a problem for asocial families. The children were without care. Now it’s those successful families, they have no time. They’d have willingness but no time.
Very serious reason which makes family relations more complicated nowadays is above mentioned changing role of husband and wife. If husband can not act as the main breadwinner of the family (or is unemployed) it may cause real tensions in the family. But also all changed economical situation has obviously a great influence on family relations - women gave examples how people (both men and women) begun to drink and the result was that family broke up.
One more change concerning family is that young people get married later compared with the period 10-15 years ago. At that time it was quite typical that young people got married in early 20-s, usually before graduation from educational institutions and without economical independence of family. Now the situation is changed, young people think at first about their future, career and after that about the family and children.
Young people get married later, before they make a career. To a certain extent, it’s right. First, you gain a foothold in your life, then you have a family, because children suffer a lot if you don't have time for them.
MEN ABOUT GENDER RELATED PROBLEMS Men as a whole discussed in focus groups much more about general things: politics, economics, ethnic relations (especially Russian men in Narva) etc. - as women expected. But men were ready to speak also about gender problems when they were asked to speak. And again, the quick answer of Estonian men to the question 'Do these problems outlined here affect women and men differently or in the same way?' was: more or less in the same way, with one small exception: Maybe women think in a different way. But I feel those are the same problems. They may express themselves in a different way, they would have a different approach to some of the problems. One Russian man from Tallinn said, that problems are the same, but perhaps it is even harder for women nowadays, they feel things more acute and become panic-stricken. Another situation appeared when the question was formulated in a little bit different way: 'What do you think, would women name the same things under those improvements and problems, or would they point out anything else, additional?' Now men found several problems concerning first of all women. They also added some aspects of everyday life not mentioned before, but what they think are important for women. Looking at these problems and additional aspects one can see that men also support and quite strongly traditional gender role behavior. In other words - women are responsible for the family and children, men should guarantee the welfare of the family. Women are certainly more affected by family problems. Men see where to get money, women are more INTERESTED in how to make life at home best. It is, of course, different. It seems that men understand double burden of women (taking care of the family and children and working at the same time), also problems connected with this. Because of that some of men said we (men) should pay more attention to women. However, between the lines was: men have their role to play, women have their own, gender roles should be taken as given. One role women take has been little appreciated. Maybe men do not always realize what an important role women really play. We imagine a women to be kind of fairy solving many men’s problems. She is kind of charitable person in the family. She completes much work, takes care of one thing or another, children. Maybe we haven’t realized it too well. Some men tried to explain this division of tasks between men and women even from psychological (philosophical?) point of view: As it is explained very clearly and conclusively by psychologists, that very much depends on individual thinking, so I believe that this list would be another to such a degree, how far women are engaged in another business and because of that they see things from another angle. Actually I thought we would run a masculine discuss here, but I can't say exactly what would be in another way by women. Apparently there would be something in connection with family and children, something more concrete. As women are considered to be responsible for family and children, they are considered to worry about the family safety and security too. Because of that women would put this problem on the first place. As we look this chronic lack of time, safety and risk, uncertainty, then it should be on the first place by women. As men earn usually 3/4 of family's income, then the women problems are usually related with safety and security. Men tried to explain why there is no security and why women are worried about this. At the same time this explanation sounded also like some self-defense, justification for giving reason why men can not guarantee the welfare of the family. You have little money and you can’t live. You can’t afford as many children as you’d like. Formerly there was no problem like that. I also have five children. My children grew up during the so-called Russian time. We had enough money to buy food, clothes, everything. Now everything is expensive: clothes are expensive, you have to pay much more for food. Estonian men can’t give any guarantee. I mean the majority of men, there is a small part, those having a very high salary, who don’t want children. More surprising was that Estonian men made some accusation towards women, saying that Finno-Ugric women have greater demands. If we look into the decrease in actual income and the great demands Estonian women have with their husbands, the problem certainly exists. Speaking about and supporting on one hand traditional gender role behavior, men at the same time recognized that some things are changing. First of all the age of marriage. Women do not get married and bear in very young age as it was earlier. Transition period has brought along much interesting and people try to take every opportunity. I have lived through it individually. At the end of 80s I and my wife didn't make anything except children. But now there is much else to do. The birth of children is delayed because women want to be free. The certain time, so that decide about education, traveling etc. Nowadays women bear children actually ten years later. In connection with that the freedom to act is bigger, and you have chance to decide when and how you will create your family, whether you have an husband and you can work together with family or you can lengthen your study period. And because of that the first child is born later, also the second. Quite interesting was to follow the men's discussion about the question - women on the labor market. Majority of men, both Estonian and Russian, agreed that women's situation on the labor market is considerably harder compared with that of men. Russian men said that for women it is practically impossible to find the job according to their profession. Many women had to stay at home or find a part-time job. Especially complicated seems to be the situation in Narva. Estonian men also stressed that women's situation on the labor market is complicated. Women can lose their job more easily and it is more difficult for woman to find a new one. And the reason by men's understanding is that there is not enough work in Estonia for women now. Such jobs are just gone. Those were those old plants where there were a hundred women in the office. Now you can’t like that. Formerly women could be employed where the company didn’t have to count money. Posts were created knowing that they wouldn’t pay off anyway. Above mentioned can be interpreted also as a fact that although the employment rate of women during the Soviet period was high, many of them did work which was not necessary to anyone or several women did work which could be done by one woman. Another reason which makes job-seeking for women (especially for young women) more difficult is child(ren). If woman has small child(ren) it is not easy to get a job because employer know that she can take sick leave and be out of work for some days. Women themselves emphasized this reason and now it is interesting to hear about this from men too. If you have many children, at work you are often asked how many children you have. Ah, so many. They are probably ill very often. You have to be at home with children. And they don’t want to employ you. Some men tried to justify negative attitude towards women as employees more concretely, from the point of view of the entrepreneur and explained that they can not change the situation if they want to be successful in the business. The problem is also in that young women start to bear, they stay at home and are lost for business for a while. In the private business is everybody important, there isn't extra workpower. As one leaves, it must replaced and educated by another one and so, and so. It's not a discrimination, it's a NECESSITY. In my opinion there isn't a direct discrimination by sex. Thus, men do not think that women are discriminated or, if they are then only in some sense. Men agreed that there are few women in business and it is very hard for women to get to some higher position in business. There is also few women among parliamentarians and higher officials in Estonia. As a whole, men found that in case of higher education the opportunities for women are smaller compared with that for men. And the main reason is that the society do not take women seriously yet. At the same time men considered themselves responsible for the society. According to this men should solve the problems and help in this way women. Unfortunately, as men realized, it is very difficult even for them. We are not able to improve the bad things. Then women will have additional problems, they themselves have to deal with those big problems too. In addition. There is no social security for solving all these problems.
To the table of contents.